5.20 evaluate the potential for using cloned transgenic animals, for example to produce commercial quantities of human antibodies or organs for transplantation.

Transgenic animals are ones that have had genes from other animals put in their DNA.
Animals can be given the gene to make human antibodies. These can then be injected into humans to help them face an infection- instead of waiting a long time for their body to find the correct antibody and then replicate it.
Sheep and goats have been made to produce human proteins in their milk: this makes milk more beneficial to humans.
Animals could be made with organs that are similar enough to humans that they could be transplanted: this would mean there was never a shortage; it would also mean less moral questions are asked (then using human organs.)

5.13 describe how plasmids and viruses can act as vectors, which take up pieces of DNA, then insert this recombinant DNA into other cells

When a virus or plasmid is inside a host cell it may pick up DNA, it may then carry this into another host cell. The foreign DNA is known as recombinant DNA.

5.19 describe the stages in the production of cloned mammals involving the introduction of a diploid nucleus from a mature cell into an enucleated egg cell, illustrated by Dolly the sheep

A egg cell with the nucleus removed has the DNA of another cell put in (this will be have a complete set of chromosones (diploid number of)). The embryo that forms will then have DNA from only one parent: the one the DNA was taken from. This means it will be a clone! for example dolly the sheep.

5.18 understand how micropropagation can be used to produce commercial quantities of identical plants (clones) with desirable characteristics

In micropropagation, plant clippings are taken and put in a growth medium. They will develop into a new plant with the same DNA. This means that every plant made from the clippings of one plant will be clones with exactly the same characteristics. If many clippings are taken then you will have many clones.

5.17 describe the process of micropropagation (tissue culture) in which small pieces of plants (explants) are grown in vitro using nutrient media

Plant clippings are taken and placed in a sterile growth medium. Roots will develop from the clipping (and shoots) making a whole new plant. The plant will then be transferred into compost and grown as a normal plant.
The plant is a clone of the one is was taken from because it has the same DNA. This means that there will be no variation, so you can have the same plant every time.

5.16 understand that the term ‘transgenic’ means the transfer of genetic material from one species to a different species

transgenic material is genetic material that is taken from one species and put into another.

5.15 evaluate the potential for using genetically modified plants to improve food production (illustrated by plants with improved resistance to pests)

Genetically modified plants are ones with desired characteristics which are meant to enhance a crop.

They may have DNA which gives them more nutritional value: like golden rice which is rice with carotene in. This will benefit a population which eats a lot of rice by giving them a better diet.

Plants may also have DNA which makes them more resistant: for example genetically modified soya plants. This means that a broad spectrum herbicide that kills many different types of plant can be spread on the crops to kill weeds; where as before many different types of herbicides would have to be spread to avoid killing the crop (time consuming/ expensive.)

Although GM plants appear to be only of benefit, there are people who claim side effects observed in lab animals such as: sterility; infant mortality; allergies; stunted growth. Another disadvantage would be that a broad spectrum herbicide that can be spread on GM crops will kill many plants in the wild not just the weeds  threatening the crops.

5.14 understand that large amounts of human insulin can be manufactured from genetically modified bacteria that are grown in a fermenter

The gene that causes human insulin production is taken from a cell and put into a bacteria's DNA. This bacteria is then put into a fermenter where the conditions are optimum for it to replicate many times. These bacteria then produce human insulin which can be harvested and given to humans with diabetes.

This is a very helpful animation:
http://www.abpischools.org.uk/page/modules/diabetes/diabetes6.cfm?coSiteNavigation_allTopic=1

5.12 describe the use of restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes to join pieces of DNA together

Restriction enzymes effectively cut through DNA strands so that a section of DNA can be taken from a cell.

Ligase enzymes can be used to join together different sections of DNA.

These processes are done to create new DNA.

Something like this:

accessexcellence

5.6 describe a simple experiment to investigate carbon dioxide production by yeast, in different conditions

Have a test tube of yeast in glucose solution. Put a layer of oil on top if you want the yeast to respire anaerobically (as it will prevent oxygen entering the solution.)

Put the test tube in a water bath, heat the water to vary the temperature.

Collect gas coming off in a tube then: count the bubbles; use downwards displacement.

5.11 understand that animals with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding

Farmers can choose to make sure animals with characteristics they desire reproduce, their offspring will inherit the genes of the characteristic.

5.10 understand that plants with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding

Farmers can breed plants selectively  choosing plants with characteristics they desire (eg colour, size of fruit) to pollinate.

5.9 explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintenance of water quality, control of intraspecific and interspecific predation, control of disease, removal of waste products, quality and frequency of feeding and the use of selective breeding.

Fish are a source of protein in many diets, humans consume a lot of fish for this reason. Fish farms are used to supply fish because: the fish's food safety standard is monitored; fresh water fish are declining; the deman for fish is increasing.

Fresh water fish may have come into contact with unclean water; containing sewage, waste, chemicals. In fish farming the water is filtered to make sure the fish don't come into contact with anything it would be unsafe to digest. Also if the water is cleaned regularly the spread of disease is minimised and the oxygen levels are high enough to maintain the respiration of the fish.

Intraspecific predation is the fish being bred eating each other, this can be stopped by: separating fish of different ages; separating fish of different genders; feeding fish regularly; giving fish adequate room.

Interspecific predation is the farmed fish being prayed on by other species, this can be prevented by: fencing the area the fish are in; putting nets around the area the fish are in; keeping the fish in inside tanks.

To minimise spread of disease, the water the fish are in should be changed regularly and their surroundings sterilised often. Also if small amounts of fish are kept together then disease can only contaminate a few fish.

Waste can be removed by changing the water in a tank, or changing the nets and location of fish kept outside.

Fish need to be fed often in small amounts, this is so they don't starve but they wont be able to over eat. It is important to feed fish food with nutrients in for growth.

Selective breeding can ensure that farmers produce fish with desired characteristics  by letting only the fish with the right characteristics breed and pass on the gene.

A useful source is: http://www.scribd.com/doc/79750837/Fish-Farming

5.8 interpret and label a diagram of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable conditions in the fermenter, including aseptic precautions, nutrients, optimum temperature and pH, oxygenation and agitation, for the growth of micro-organisms

Here is a diagram of a fermenter, the key parts are labelled:

eplantscience

The motor (labelled here as stirrer) turns the blades, this evens out the mixture: making sure the temperature and concentration is the same through out; and increasing the contact between the micro-organisms and other components.

The cooling jacket (labelled here as water column) controls the temperature as the cool water conducts heat from within. The temperature and PH both need to be monitored so that they can be kept at the optimum level for the enzymes. If the enzymes are in their optimum conditions then they will react faster.

Inoculum is the starter culture; basically it helps the fermentation start.

The air inlet gets oxygen into the fermenter. Oxygen is needed for the micro-organisms to respire. A sparger/agitator makes the air into very small bubbles; this means they have a larger surface area and can dissolve easily, so there is better access to oxygen for micro-organisms.

Aseptic conditions are needed as if there were other microbes in the fermenter; firstly they would contaminate the product; secondly they would use up nutrients and oxygen.

Nutrients are needed in the fermenter so the micro-organism can grow.

5.7 understand the role of bacteria (Lactobacillus) in the production of yoghurt

When Lactobacillus respire anaerobically, they make lactic acid: this acid clumps milk proteins together making yoghurt.

5.5 understand the role of yeast in the production of beer

Yeast converts sugar to ethanol and CO2 whe it respires anaerobically.
ethanol is alcohol...

5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control with crop plants Micro-organisms

Pests can eat crops or damage them so they can't be sold.

Pesticides are used to kill pests that reduce crop yield.
The assure that crops won't be damaged. Fast and accurate to apply. Instant results.
They can harm other wildlife.
Killing the pest may affect biodiversity.
Pesticides can leech into the soil and possibly pollute rivers or surrounding habitats.
Pests can become immune.

Biological control is introducing a predator into the environment with the crops to kill the pests.
Cheep. Self regulating.
The predator may enter the wild and effect the biodiversity.

5.3 understand the use of fertiliser to increase crop yield

Fertilisers contain minerals that plants require to grow; most of them are called NPK fertilisers, this means they contain nitrates, phosphates and potassium.

Nitrates are needed to make proteins- proteins are what plant cells are made of. If there is a lot of nitrate in the soil then plants have the ability to grow as much as they can.

Phosphates are involved in respiration and growth- both things are needed to sustain a plant.

Potassium must be present for enzymes to work- with out it the plant wouldn't be able to carry out reactions and so would die or have very limited growth.

5.2 understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses

Glass houses and polythene tunnels increase the heat in the environment that crops are growing in. Reactions happen faster when there is more heat, for example photosynthesis. Given photosynthesis produces energy that the plant needs to grow, if there is more heat there is more growth and so higher yield.

Carbon dioxide is a reactant in photosynthesis. If there is a more than enough carbon dioxide, then every plant will be able to photosynthesise as best as it can. The more photosynthesis the more glucose, the more glucose the more energy, the more energy the more growth. Hence crop yield is increased.

5.1 describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain crops

In glasshouses and polythene tunnels conditions can be controlled. This control means that all the limiting factors for plant growth can be set to the optimum conditions; this will result in more growth, so higher yield.